Witches

In pre-Christian times, magic is not shunned: it is revered. Odin the All-Father is a practitioner, as are other Æsir gods. They’re taught seidr magic by the seidr goddess herself, Freya. Among humans, those who are able to harness magical powers are called seidfolk. They’re primarily women, some also known as völvas or wise women. Their magic is tied to foreseeing and affecting the future, often through a combination of visions, runic formulas, incantations, and plant-based potions. Seidfolk enjoy great respect in their communities. Among the Sámi, too, communing with other worlds and shaping the future with the help of spirits is widespread. Though all can participate in the practice, a select few have greater power of mediating between the human world and the gods; they are called noaidi and serve an important role in their communities.

But the arrival of Christianity in Scandinavia changes everything. Seidr magic, which is associated with paganism, and the shamanic practices of the Sámi are rejected as heresy. Already in early Medieval times, laws are introduced forbidding all forms of heresy. They differentiate little between witchcraft, believed to come from the Devil, and other deviations from the official church teachings. Even so, heresy trials are exceedingly rare in Norway prior to the Reformation.

The Protestant Reformation of 1537 brings a major religious, cultural, and legal shift when Norway simultaneously accepts a new denomination and falls fully under Danish rule. By the end of the century, persecution of witches has started.

Accusations mostly target women, often those who enjoy a level of power or status: rich widows, wise women, birth workers, folk healers. Of the accused men, the vast majority are Sámi: their culture, language, beliefs, and traditions deviate from the norm, making them an easy mark for both the Norwegian society and the Danish authorities.

The most infamous witch trial comes already in 1590. Anne Pedersdotter is accused of witchcraft for the second time, having already been acquitted in 1575. She is the widow of Absalon Pederssøn Beyer (1528-1575), a priest who played a vital role in the Reformation. Her late husband’s great influence and her own strong-willed and independent demeanor makes her a prominent yet disliked woman in Bergen. She is convicted of cursing multiple people, including a child, to illness and death. On April 7th, 1590, she is burned to death at Nordnes outside of Bergen.

In 1604, the ongoing persecution of witches is legitimized when the Danish king Christian IV implements a new law, which is expanded with a Witchcraft Regulation in 1617. A distinction is here made between witchcraft and simple heresy, where witchcraft is directly linked to a pact with the Devil and carries with it the punishment of death.

The most common method of execution at this time is hanging. But by now, this method has already fallen out of favor: witchcraft is considered a serious offense that defiles the very soul of the practitioner, which mere hanging does not resolve. Instead, burning witches is the preferred method of doing away with them because flames are considered a purifying force. This is codified in Christian V of Denmark’s Norwegian law from 1687.

It is the first time such brutal punishment is seen in Norwegian laws. The only mercy afforded those convicted is an introduction of a more humane method of burning: instead of being tied to a stake with a pyre lit under them, Norwegian witches are tied to a ladder and thrown head-first into a blazing fire. It is believed that the shock of heat and pain would stop their heart quickly; a kindness compared to the slow death from smoke inhalation and burning on a pyre.

Though many major prosecutions occur in the south of the country, it is Northern Norway that is hardest hit by the witch trials. Despite how few people live in the north compared to the south, around four out of every ten witch executions take place here, in large part because the Sámi who inhabit the area are frequently accused of witchcraft.

The accused in the north are deported to Vardø in Finnmark to await trial at the Vardøhus Fortress. As a part of the process, they are water tested: their hands and feet are tied, and a rope is looped around their waist before they are thrown into the sea. If they stay afloat, it is proof that they are a witch. If they sink, they are declared innocent, but it’s a cold comfort when they’ve already drowned.

In 1695, Johanne Nielsdatter from Kvæfjord in Troms county is arrested and tried for witchcraft. She is found to have killed four and injured many more through her dark arts. Her punishment is to be burned alive. She is the last woman to be convicted and killed for witchcraft in Norway. By now, a total of around 900 people have been tried for witchcraft and more than 300 executed: around 50 men and over 280 women.

While the mere suspicion of witchcraft is enough to ruin a person’s life in the 16th and 17th centuries, magical knowledge isn’t necessarily grounds for concern. In fact, during the entire period of the witch trials, as well as before and after it, it is not unheard of for regular Christian folk to be in possession of black books.

A black book or Cyprianus is a book of magic that contains formulas, recipes, curses, and instructions on how to harness mystical powers, similar to a grimoire. Each grimoire is unique, shaped by the knowledge and interest of the person who wrote it. Some books contain advice on how to get game to stay still during a hunt, harness luck in card and dice games, or awaken a woman’s feelings. Others are full of old wives’ tales, recipes for curing illnesses in humans and animals, and spells for summoning thieves and witches to recover stolen goods. Only very few include rituals for summoning the Devil or demons.

Where the information comes is uncertain. Some say it’s learned from wisefolk. Or maybe darker forces are at play: as the story goes, users of black books must have attended a black school or a school of descent where the Devil himself teaches magic. Here, they received their black book from the Devil, who took their eternal soul as payment.

Traditionally, a black book are written in red letters on black paper or have alternating black and red pages. In Norway, however, the strict censorship implemented by the church limits printing options, and most authors write by hand using ink on parchment. Many of them are educated, some are even priests.

Petter Dass is a priest and author from Alstahaug in Nordland municipality, where he is the parish priest of one of the richest parishes in Northern Norway. He writes both religious and worldly texts, where he famously warns his parishioners against all folk magic, including amulets, spells, fortune-telling, and wisefolk. But rumor has it that he doesn’t follow his own advice: he is said to have attended a black school but tricked the Devil to take his shadow instead of his soul. Now, he uses his black book to put the Devil in his place. Black book priests like Petter Dass are not persecuted the way witches are. Their dabbling in the arts is not considered a form of evil witchcraft, but rather valuable knowledge that they use for good.

Some black books survive in their hiding places into modern times. One of them is the Book of Vinje, the oldest surviving book of magic in Norway, found under the floorboards of the old Vinje stave church when it was torn down in 1796. Its pages are dated back to around 1480, while the latin texts are believed to have been written in the 1520s. In addition to recipes for plant medicine and other healing advice, it includes 11 hymns dedicated to Virgin Mary.